Kernel Components (201.1)

Kernel Components (201.1)

Candidates should be able to utilise kernel components that are necessary to specific hardware, hardware drivers, system resources and requirements. This objective includes implementing different types of kernel images, identifying stable and development kernels and patches, as well as using kernel modules.

Key knowledge Areas:

• Kernel 2.6.x documentation

• Kernel 3.x documentation

• Kernel 4.x documentation

Terms and Utilities

• /usr/src/linux

• /usr/src/linux/Documentation

• zImage

• bzImage

• xz compression

Different types of kernel images

The Linux kernel was originally designed to be a monolithic kernel. Monolithic kernels contain all drivers for all the various types of supported hardware, regardless if your system uses that hardware. As the list of supported hardware grew the amount of code that was never used on any given system grew too. Therefore a system was introduced that allowed the kernel to load some hardware drivers dynamically. These loadable device drivers were named "kernel modules".

Though the Linux kernel can load and unload modules it does not qualify as a microkernel. Microkernels are designed such that only the least possible amount of code is run in supervisor mode - this was never a design goal for Linux kernels. The Linux kernel is best described as a hybrid kernel: it is capable of loading and unloading code as microkernels do, but runs almost exclusively in supervisor mode, as monolithic kernels do.

It is still possible to build the Linux kernel as a monolithic kernel. But it is rarely done, as updating device drivers requires a complete recompile of the kernel. However, building a monolithic kernel has its advantages too: it may have a smaller footprint as you can download and build just the parts you need and dependencies are clearer.

When stored on disk most kernel images are compressed to save space. There are two types of compressed kernel types: zImage and bzImage.

zImage and bzImage files have different layouts and loading algorithms. The maximum allowed kernel size for a zImage is 512Kb, where a bzImage does not pose this limit. As a result the bzImage kernel is the preferred image type for larger kernels. zImage will be loaded in low memory and bzImage can also be loaded in high memory if needed.

Note Both zImage and bzImage use gzip compression. The "bz" in bzImage refers to "big zImage" - not to the "bzip" compression algorithm.

Overview of numbering schemes for kernels and patches

The numbering schemes in use for Linux kernels has changed several times over the years: the original scheme, valid for all kernels up to version 2.6.0, the scheme for kernels version 2.6.0 up to 3.0, the previous scheme, for kernels 3.0 and later, and the current scheme starting with version 4.0. In the next sections we discuss each of them.

Scheme up to 2.6.0 kernels

Initially, a kernel version number consisted of three parts: major release number, minor release number and the patch level, all separated by periods.

The major release was incremented when a major change was made to the kernel.

The minor release was incremented when significant changes and additions were made. Even-numbered minor releases, e.g. 2.2, 2.4, were considered stable releases and odd-numbered releases, e.g. 2.1, 2.3, 2.5 were considered to be development releases. They were primarily used by kernel developers and people that preferred bleeding edge functionality at the risk of instability.

The last part of the kernel version number indicated the patch level. As errors in the code were corrected (and/or features were added) the patch level was incremented. A kernel should only be upgraded to a higher patch level when the current kernel has a functional or security problem.

Kernel Versioning since kernel version 2.6.0 and up to 3.0

In 2004, after the release of 2.6.0, the versioning system was changed, and it was decided that a time-based release cycle would be adopted. For the next seven years the kernel remained at 2.6 and the third number was increased with each new release (which happend every two or three months). A fourth number was added to account for bug and security fixes. An example of this scheme is kernel 2.6.32.71. The even-odd numbering system was no longer used.

Kernel Versioning from version 3.0 to 4.0

On 29 May 2011, Linus Torvalds announced the release of kernel version 3.0.0 in honour of the 20^th anniversary of Linux. This changed the numbering scheme yet again. It would still be a time-based release system but the second number would indicate the release number, and the third number would be the patch number. For test releases the -rc designation is used. Following this scheme, 3.2.84 would refer to a stable kernel release. 3.2-rc4 on the other hand would point to the fourth release candidate of the 3.2 kernel.

Kernel Versioning from 4.0

In April 2015 kernel version 4.0.0 was released. The versioning system didn't change this time. At the time of this writing, kernel version 6.4.2 is the latest stable version available through https://kernel.org. The 4.x kernel did however introduce a couple of new features. The possibility to perform "Live Patching" being one of the more noteworthy ones. Live patching offers the possibility to install kernel patches without the need to reboot the system. This can be accomplished by unloading and loading appropriate kernel modules. Every time a new Linux kernel version gets released, it is accompanied by a changelog. These changelog files hold detailed information about what has changed in this release compared to previous versions.

XZ Compression

Every Linux distribution comes with a kernel that has been configured and compiled by the distribution developers. Most Linux distributions also offer possibilities to upgrade the kernel binary through some sort of package system. It is however also possible to compile a kernel for your system using kernel sources from the previously mentioned website kernel.org. These kernel sources are packed using tar and compressed using the XZ compression method. XZ is the successor to LZMA and LZMA2. Recent Linux kernels offer built-in support for XZ. Depending on the Linux distribution in use, it might be necessary to install a xz-utils or equivalent package to uncompress xz compressed files. After having downloaded the kernel sources for one of the available kernels as a tar.xz archive, these source files may be unpacked using the following command line:

    $ tar xvf linux-4.10-rc3.tar.xz

Note GNU tar needs to be at least version 1.22 for the above command to work.

What are kernel modules

Linux kernel modules are object files (.ko files) produced by the C compiler but not linked into a complete executable. Kernel modules can be loaded into the kernel to add functionality when needed. Most modules are distributed with the kernel and compiled along with it. Every kernel version has its own set of modules.

Modules are stored in a directory hierarchy under /lib/modules/kernel-version, where kernel-version is the string reported by uname -r or found in /proc/sys/kernel/osrelease, such as 2.6.5-15smp. Multiple module hierarchies are available under /lib/modules in case multiple kernels are installed.

Subdirectories that contain modules of a particular type exist under the /lib/modules/ kernel-version directory. This grouping is convenient for administrators, but also enables important functionality within the modprobe command.

Typical mudule types

• block

  • Modules for a few block-specific devices such as RAID controllers or IDE tape drives.

• cdrom

  • Device driver modules for nonstandard CD-ROM drives.

• fs

  • Drivers for filesystems such as MS-DOS (the msdos.ko module).

• ipv4

  • Includes modular kernel features having to do with IP processing, such as IP masquerading.

• misc

  • Anything that does not fit into one of the other subdirectories ends up here. Note that no modules are stored at the top of this tree.

• net

  • Network interface driver modules.

• scsi

  • Contains driver modules for the SCSI controller.

• video

  • Special driver modules for video adapters.

Module directories are also referred to as tags within the context of module manipulation commands.